Raglin JS, et al.
Development of a scale for use in monitoring training-induced distress in athletes.
Int J Sports Med. 1994 Feb;15(2):84-8.
In 1994, this study used a scale based on the POMS (The Profile of Mood States, one of the mood scales Im considering using in my own study) to identify college age athletes at risk of training-induced distress.  Data were collected monthly from 170 swimmers, 70 female, 100 male. The study also relied on testimony from the team coach pointing out swimmers who showed signs of such training-induced stress.  The predictive ability of the aforementioned scale was compared to the coachs testimony and very high agreement was observed. The predictive validity of this scale was p<.05 making it acceptable to use among college aged men, who are the intended population  for my own study.

Berger BG, et al.
Mood alteration with swimming--swimmers really do "feel better".
Psychosom Med. 1983 Oct;45(5):425-33.
In 1983, 11 years before the previous study, Bergers study showed the relationship between swimming and mood. The POMS predicted accurately that following the exercise, the subjects reported significantly less tension, depression, anger, confusion, and more vigor than before exercise. In this subject there was no gender difference evidenced. This, once again, gives validity to the POMS and a college population, and even further, to the study of physical exercise and mood. The POMS is looking like an excellent choice for my own use.

Pivonka EE, et al.
Aspartame- or sugar-sweetened beverages: effects on mood in young women.
J Am Diet Assoc. 1990 Feb;90(2):250-4.
Two other useful mood scales might be the SSS (the Stanford Sleepiness Scale) and the VAMS (the Visual Analogue Mood Scale). Both of these mood scales, along with the POMS, were used in a 1990 study on the effects of aspartame or sugar sweetened drinks on college age women. It was shown that changes in mood were insignificant following the intake of the aspartame sweetened drink as compared to the intake of water. Following the intake of the sugar sweetened drink, however, sleepiness of the subjects increased during the last half of the one-hour observation period. This study shows us that both the VAMS and SSS, along with the already validated POMS, is used among college age populations.

From Homework write iv on validating some measures using data that exist in the study.

1) HDRS-->aggression scale higher score on the depression scale will have a significant positive relationship with higher score on the aggression scale.
=i think depressives are more likely to be aggressive towards others and towards themselves

2) Coddington (Life events scale)-->HDRS higher score on the coddington will have a significant positive relationship with higher score on the HDRS
=i think that people who have experienced more life events will be more likely to get depressed

3) HDRS-->PSS (percieved stress scale) higher score on the HDRS will have a significant positive relationship with higher score on the PSS
=i think people with higher depression ratings will perceive their lives as more stressful
 

What follows are my findings in the literature regarding the validity/use of two of the scales used in the study. All of my findings are from PubMed and I have included the url of each article with its abstract. I have decided to first briefly summarize the article then include its full abstract from the web page. 

#1
What this study demonstrates is that Interpersonal Psychotherapy is an effective means of treating depressed adolescents. The relevance of this study is that it uses a Latino adolescent population as its sample and uses as it criterion for recovery the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression with a of score < or =6. 
Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999 Jun;56(6):573-9
Efficacy of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents.
Mufson L, Weissman MM, Moreau D, Garfinkel R
Division of Clinical-Genetic Epidemiology, New York State Psychiatric
Institute and College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New
York 10032,

BACKGROUND: Psychotherapy is widely used for depressed adolescents, but evidence supporting its efficacy is sparse. 
METHODS: In a controlled, 12-week, clinical trial of Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents (IPT-A), 48 clinic-referred adolescents (aged 12-18 years) who met the criteria for DSM-III-R major depressive disorder were randomly assigned to either weekly IPT-A or clinical monitoring. Patients were seen biweekly by a "blind" independent evaluator to assess their symptoms, social functioning, and social problem-solving skills. Thirty-two of the 48 patients completed the protocol (21 IPT-A-assigned patients and 11 patients in the control group). 
RESULTS: Patients who  received IPT-A reported a notably greater decrease in depressive symptoms and greater improvement in overall social functioning, functioning with friends, and specific problem-solving skills. In the intent-to-treat sample, 18 (75%) of 24 patients who received IPT-A compared with 11 patients (46%) in the control condition met recovery criterion (Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression score < or =6) at week 12.
CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary findings support the feasibility, acceptability, and efficacy of 12 weeks of IPT-A in acutely depressed adolescents in reducing depressive symptoms and improving social functioning and interpersonal problem-solving skills. Because it is a small sample consisting largely of Latino, low socioeconomic status adolescents, further studies must be conducted with other adolescent populations to confirm the generalizability of the findings. 

#2
This study demonstrates that access to hand guns amongst urban high school students is very high and that it is not only the more troubled children that own, use, or have access to guns, but that availability is all pervasive. Though this abstract does not mention the ethnicity of the population they use it is important for us to note that they used Hollingshead's Two Factor Index of Social Position on an urban adolescent population. 
JAMA 1992 Jun 10;267(22):3038-42 
Urban high school youth and handguns. A school-based survey.
Callahan CM, Rivara FP
Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle. 

OBJECTIVE--To determine the prevalence of handgun ownership among urban high school youth and investigate associations with socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and deviant behaviors. DESIGN--Survey of half of the Seattle, Wash, public high schools, which enroll 50% of the school district's 11th-grade students (N = 970). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Self-reports of handgun ownership, perceived access to handguns, racial/ethnic identity, social status (Hollingshead's Two Factor Index of Social Position), and social deviance (Seattle Self-Report Instrument) were determined.
RESULTS--Thirty-four percent of the students reported easy access to handguns (47% of males, 22% of females) and 6.4% reported owning a handgun (11.4% of males, 1.5% of females). Reported firearm experiences indicated a high rate of handgun utilization: 33% of handgun owners had fired at someone, 9.7% of female students reported a firearm homicide or suicide in family members or close friends, and 6% of male students reported carrying a handgun to school sometime in the past. Handgun ownership was more common among students who reported deviant behaviors. Adjusting for age, gender, and racial/ethnic group and controlling for covariation among the problem behaviors, gang membership (odds ratio [OR], 8.8; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.7 to 20.8), sentencing by a judge (OR, 4.6; 95% CI, 1.3 to 15.5), selling drugs (OR, 3.7; 95% CI, 1.8 to 7.8), suspension or expulsion from school (OR, 3.5; 95% CI, 1.7 to 7.0), and assault and battery (OR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.1 to 5.9) were associated with handgun ownership. However, 22% of male handgun owners did not report any of the above behaviors. 
CONCLUSION-The  availability of handguns to the urban high school students surveyed is pervasive, and it is not limited to high-risk groups. 
PMID: 1588717, UI: 92269436

#3
Once again this study does not state the ethnicity of its population never the less it is of interest to us, because it uses Hollingshead's Two Factor Index of Social Position on a suburban adolescent population. What this study shows is that self esteem can be positively correlated with intelligence and in males very slightly correlated with pubertal maturation.
J Adolesc Health Care 1988 Jul;9(4):280-5 
Pubertal maturation and adolescent self-esteem.
Brack CJ, Orr DP, Ingersoll G
Indiana University, Indianapolis. 
One hundred thirty-five students attending a suburban junior and senior high school were studied to examine the relationships between self-esteem and age, gender, and pubertal events. Forty-five percent of the subjects were male, and 24% were black. Mean Hollingshead Two Factor Index of Social Position was 37.1 +/- 16.3, reflecting their predominantly middle-class background. Self-esteem was not related to age but did correlate with intelligence (r = 0.233, p = 0.003). Females had significantly lower self-esteem than males (p = 0.001). Pubertal status (Tanner stage) did not affect self-esteem. However, our data suggest that a subtle relationship between timing of sexual maturation and self-esteem may exist for males. Perhaps more sensitive measures of early pubertal maturation (such as hormone levels) may clarify the extent of this relationship and the gender differences found prior to age 11 years. 
PMID: 3417501, UI: 88330551
 

From Homework write iv on validating some measures using data that exist in the study.

My first hypothesis to validate the Coddington Life Events (p. 5) Is that their should be a positive relationship between recency of any death in family or the death of a friend with increased alcohol consumption over the past two months as seen on the substance abuse inventory page 25. (In addition increases in other substances use could be looked at) Also, if this inventory is given also one might be able to chart the tolerance level increasing over time, which would speak to continual and increased use.

I think that people after suffering a lose of a loved one are more likely to hit the bottle as a copeing strategy.

My second hypothesis is that there is a positive relationship between high levels of alcohol use as seen on Substance Abuse Inventory and high levels of onset insomnia as seen on the Hamilton (p29) in addition to high scores on the variable in insomnia late (p30) labeled "waking in early hours of the morning but going back to sleep." However, I think there will be a negative relationship between alcohol use and insomnia middle on the second two variables, because alcohol is a depressent and usually knocks you out for the middle of the night.

My last hypothesis is that there should be a positive relationship between scores on the PSS and the Substance abuse inventory, becuase people  with higher levels of stress are more likely to use chemicals as a manner of copeing or dealing with their hightened levels of stress.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999 Jun;56(6):573-9 
Efficacy of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents.
Mufson L, Weissman MM, Moreau D, Garfinkel R
Division of Clinical-Genetic Epidemiology, New York State Psychiatric Institute and College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York 10032, USA. 
BACKGROUND: Psychotherapy is widely used for depressed adolescents, but evidence supporting that it works is not easy to find. METHODS: In a controlled, 12-week, clinical trial of Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents (IPT-A), 48 clinic-referred adolescents (aged 12-18 years) who met the criteria for DSM-III-R major depressive disorder were randomly assigned to either weekly IPT-A or clinical monitoring. Patients were seen biweekly by a "blind" independent evaluator to assess their symptoms, social functioning, and social problem-solving skills. Thirty-two of the 48 patients completed the protocol (21 IPT-A-assigned patients and 11 patients in the control group). RESULTS: Patients who received IPT-A reported a notably greater decrease in depressive symptoms and greater improvement in overall social functioning, functioning with friends, and specific problem-solving skills. In the intent-to-treat sample, 18 (75%) of 24 patients who received IPT-A compared with 11 patients (46%) in the control condition met recovery criterion (Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression score < or =6) at week 12. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary findings support the feasibility, acceptability, and efficacy of 12 weeks of IPT-A in acutely depressed adolescents in reducing depressive symptoms and improving social functioning and interpersonal problem-solving skills. Because it is a small sample consisting largely of Latino, low socioeconomic status adolescents, further studies must be conducted with other adolescent populations to confirm the generalizability of the findings 
This article questions whether adolescents are truly benefiting from psychotherapy.  Using subjects from ages 12- 18 they found that the depression in the subjects who were treated was significantly lower than the control group’s using the HRSD.  This gives proof that the HRSD is valid for adolescents.

J Nerv Ment Dis 1994 Mar;182(3):136-44 
Ethnicity and psychopathology in an aging hospital-based population. A comparison of African-American and Anglo-European patients.
Fabrega H Jr, Mulsant BM, Rifai AH, Sweet RA, Pasternak R, Ulrich R, Zubenko GS
Department of Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213. 
This study analyzes the effect of ethnicity, classified as African-American and Anglo-European, on diagnosis, symptomatology, and response to inpatient treatment in a sample of geriatric patients of a research unit of a tertiary care facility. Variables that might confound the effects of ethnicity, such as age, gender, education, and associated diagnoses, were statistically controlled. Psychotic diagnoses were significantly associated with ethnicity, being higher in African-Americans, weakening the claim that such an association stems from the confounding effects of social class. Variability in the ratings on the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale and Hamilton Depression Scale was significantly associated with ethnicity in several instances. African-Americans appeared to obtain comparatively higher therapeutic benefits from hospitalization. Results are discussed using knowledge of the field of cultural and social psychiatry. 
This study confirms that the HRSD shows statistical difference between African Americans and Anglo-Europeans in regard to their psychotic diagnosis.  Being that age was controlled for, this Depression Scale is proven to be valid for African American Adolescents. 
Although this last study seems to prove validity for adolescents as well, combined with the previous study, which dealt solely with adolescents, it seems that this scale is impeccably valid for the African American Adolescent population.

J Behav Med 1998 Dec;21(6):601-11 
The development and structural confirmation of the Rhode Island Stress and Coping Inventory.
Fava JL, Ruggiero L, Grimley DM
University of Rhode Island, Kingston 02881, USA. 
A new measure, the Rhode Island Stress and Coping Inventory (RISCI), was developed to examine perceived stress and coping independent of specific stress situations. An adult sample (N = 466) was randomly divided into equal halves for developmental and confirmatory instrument development. Initial instrument development used principal components analysis, item analysis, and a measure of internal consistency (Coefficient alpha). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed on the confirmatory sample to examine the structure of the refined item set. Several CFA fit indices indicated excellent fit for a model that represents perceived stress and coping as two moderately correlated dimensions. Validity analyses found strong relationships in the expected directions for both RISCI subscales with the 5-item Mental Health Inventory. Further validity analyses supported the utility of the RISCI in applied research with smokers and confirmed past research findings that successful quitters experience less perceived stress and cope better than relapsers. 

J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs 1997 Apr-Jun;10(2):26-35 
Runaway youths in a southern community: four critical areas of inquiry.
Warren JK, Gary FA, Moorhead J
College of Nursing, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA. 
PROBLEM: Significant life events in runaway youth include the experience of abuse, school/legal entanglements, and sexual behavior. SUBJECTS: 78 nonurban, runaway youths. METHODS: The Structural Clinical Interview Instrument and the Coddington Life Events Scale were used for data collection. FINDINGS: The majority of respondents reported life situations replete with experiences of abuse, school/legal entanglements, high-risk sexual behavior, and significant life events. Significant gender differences were reported regarding sexual activity (p = .002). Significant positive associations exist between the use of birth control and sexual activity (p = .002), and between school suspensions and sexual activity (p = .01). A significant relationship exists between the use of birth control and the occurrence of abuse (p = .01). CONCLUSIONS: Much research is needed to develop programs with a focus on prevention. 
This experiment confirms that runaways have a history that is associated with abuse and entanglement with the law.  The degree of significance between the variables tested for and the runaways history give enough evidence to prove validity for the Coddington Life Events Scale in regards to Youths. 
Athough we may assume that this study as well as many other related studies include African Americans and Latinos we cannot be sure.  No experiments seem to have been done using only one racial group.  Further research regarding the ethnicity of the youths in the available literature must be done to determine the validity for each race. 

From Homework write iv on validating some measures using data that exist in the study.

Hamilton Depression Research Scale - 

FACTORS THAT WILL RELATE TO THIS SCALES VALIDITY:
A. Depressed individuals are less talkative.
B. Eat less or more than normal
C. Less effective in work 
D. Show fewer expressions of positive interactions with peers
E. Have fatigue due to sleep deprivation or oversleeping
F. Less careful about appearance (dress sloppy)
G. They tend to avoid social interactions
H. Perceive themselves as being less capable
 

HYPOTHESES:

1. The amount of recent weight change will correlate with severity of Depression.
2. Those individuals that are depressed will not interact in a positive manner with the people they meet in public.
3. The length of the sentences that the subject uses to respond will be shorter for the more depressed individuals.
4. Those subjects with more severe cases of depression will have more severe cases of fatigue.
5. Those subjects who are depressed will miss more invitations for social gatherings than those who aren't depressed.
6. Perceived efficacy will correlate with the degree of depression, in that those that are more depressed will see themselves as less effective.

The Hollingshead Two-Factor Index of Social Position seems to be seen as a  valid measure of social status as it has a wide web of use.  Many diverse  sociological, biological, and psychological studies quote it as a source of  measure in their objective of experimental achievement.  The very nature of  its construction brings into question its true validity. As we discussed  earlier validity of a test is determined by its unbiased calculating of the  factor at hand. In the Hollingshead Two-Factor Index, socioeconomic status is  one of the major demographic variables. SES was calculated by rating each  parent's occupation and education according to Hollingshead (1965).  The  personal rating of SES by Hollingshead brings to question the unbiased nature  of validity that is requisite in valid measures.  Hollingshead own  experiences and upbringing will undoubtedly affect what he considers a high  versus a low level of socioeconomic status. In his family structure based on  his race, religion, and homeland, some traits may be seen as positive,  respected socioeconomic milestones, while in a family with a far different  ancestry these qualities may be seen as damaging of SES. 

In a 1990 study in Youth and Society, the relationship between familial  factors and delinquency were measured.  Seemingly recognizing the validity  issues inherent in Hollingshead index, the study was performed with  adjustments.  In this study Gray-Ray and Ray appear to question the complete  use of Hollingshead's measure across family structures, as Hollingshead's  view may have created higher SES scores for Whites because of the traits they  see as more socioeconomically valid.   To eliminate these problems in  validity, an only black sample was used. Unlike other studies, which might  have used the Hollinghead index to judge against Black and White delinquents,  only Black delinquents were used;  since distinct family interaction patterns  and structures can affect views on SES status and how different races  classify them. Rather, it addressed race-specific questions of delinquency by  including only Black males, and attempted to clarify the relationship between  family structure and delinquency by controlling for social class within a  Black-only sample. It also examined the relative effects of family control  factors on both minor and serious delinquency.  This yielded a stronger  empirical study because the Hollingshead factor could not be criticized for a  different validity across classes.

The reliability of the Hollingshead index is also not fully developed.  Firstly, it is defined differently by different studies.  In some experiments  it is measured as a Two-Index test and in others as a Four-Index tests.  This  inconsistency in the use of the Hollingshead tests injures its reliability.   As we developed earlier, the reliability of a test is measured as its ability  to yield the same or similar results after repeated trials.  If the test is  measured two ways depending on the study, reliability is not very strong.  In  a study by Parks in 1986, the results of the study lay more question to the  reliability of the Hollingshead measure.  Relationships among parenting  knowledge, quality of stimulation in the home and infant developmental  performance were investigated in three socioeconomic status groups determined  by the Hollingshead scale.  Eighty-two percent of lower class participants  were black, while 74% of middle class and 87% of higher class were white.  This shows a possible bias in this test of measure if it always yields a  higher level of blacks in the lower class levels.  The measures should be  reliable and show a SES correlation, which is even across racial boundaries.   The reliability and validity of the Hollingshead measure must be examined.   Despite these concerns though, this index seems to maintain a high employment  in many diverse studies.

From Homework write iv on validating some measures using data that exist in the study.

Hollingshead Two-Factor Index of Social Position utilizes certain  demographic variables and a rating of an individual's education and  occupation by Hollingshead to determine socioeconomic status.  A high  socioeconomic status should correlate with an educated, well-mannered  individual, one who uses peaceful measures to alleviate conflict.   Individuals who are scored as having high socioeconomic status should exhibit  certain behaviors.  On measures of aggressive behavior they should exhibit  low scores.  Aggressive behavior is not a favorable, or accepted behavior in  higher socioeconomic populations.  I hypothesize that more favorable SES  rating should correlate with more favorable measures of aggressive behaviors.  These variables are both continuous and could be measured with an R  correlation. 
 
While many view depression as a purely biological phenomenon, I feel that  life events can play a major role in depression ratings.    The Hamilton  Depression Research Scale is used as a measure of an individual's depression.  Some of the variables from the Coddington Life Events measure, I feel can  affect depression ratings.  Having or acquiring a visible deformity is an  indelible, tragic occurrence, which is constantly reminded to the individual  who is suffering.  I feel that this binary variable can affect depression  ratings and their relationship should be measured with a T test.

The substance use inventory is a measure of variables that can define an  individual in many respects.  An individual with a very high score in this  inventory can be looked at from two angles.  Either they know the  consequences of their actions but choose to forego them in an effort to  enhance and enjoy life more fully, or they are unaware and uneducated to the  negative effects of substance abuse.  I have therefore developed a somewhat  complicated hypothesis.  Individuals with high substance abuse scores are  either uneducated and will therefore exhibit low scores in other cognitive  measures of health risks as in the Health Beliefs Model, or they are someone  who feels the need to enhance their otherwise depressing, unhappy life and  will score high on the Hamilton Scale for Depression. 

From Homework write iv on validating some measures using data that exist in the study.

Hypothesis 1: If people in their mid twenties score low on the UCLA, they will be more apt to drink their problems away,as oppossed to someone who is younger,will try different methods.

Hypothesis 2: There is definately a positive reaction between the consumption of alcohol and  sleep. Anyone who is drinking a lot and getting drunk will be 
sleeping a lot more then the average person.

Hypothesis 3: People who score high on the Hamilton Depression Research scale will not like to interact with others and will be sleeping a lot more.
 

Two tests often used in assesing different aspects of AIDS are the  "Health Beliefs Model", and the "Theory of Reasoned Action". The first test  measures the cognitive variables, while the second measures a portion of the  social variables.

In an effort to determine some of the factors involved in condom use  among Latino and African American adolescents, Ford K and Norris AE decided  to employ the aforementioned tests. The article may be found on the internet  in the Internet Grateful Med search engine under the title "Factors related  to condom use with casual partners among urban African-American and Hispanic  males" .

The test was performed on adolescents and determined that it was  important to: 1)Promote a sense of male responsibility for condom use;  2)Promote condom use with all partners; 3) Develop the skills for condom use  and partner communication; and 4) Increase perceived susceptibility to  infection through intervention programs.

This experiment is wonderful for our purpose in that it provides us  Validity for a wide range of what we set out to investigate. That is, it  employs two measures, the "Health Beliefs Model" and the "Theory of Reasoned  Action", and it test both African-American and Latino Adolescents. For our  purposes we find validity in that it has been used (also, since it was used  there probably is predictive and content validity, but that is not  discussed). The reliability information, however,  is not provided.

A second experiment conducted was the, "Efficacy of interpersonal  psychotherapy for depressed adolescents"  . It was  performed by Mufson L, Weissman MM, Moreau D, and Garfinkel R; and may also  be found on the Internet Grateful Med search engine.

It attempted to ascertain the effectiveness of interpersonal  psycotherapy among depressed adolescents. It seperated a group of  adolescents to be treated through clinical monitoring while the rest were  given Inter Personal Therapy. The results were that 75% of the experimental  group improved, as compareed to 46% of the control group.

This experiment is relevant to us because it happened to test  Hispanic adolescents. Furthermore, it used the Hamilton Depressed Research  Scale to determine the level of depression and recovery.

Thus, it would seem to provide us with a certain amount of  validity. However, once again, there is no information on reliability.

From Homework write iv on validating some measures using data that exist in the study.

The first test that I would like to validate is the "Hamilton Depression  Research Scale". My hypotheses is that if the test is valid it will be able  to correlate altered sleeping habits of depressed individuals. In other  words, the people who are assesed as depressed will be found to sleep less.  I believe that this will be a valid test since it is known that depressed  individuals do not sleep as well as they normally would.

Since i would be comparing two categorical variables, the test i would  use to validate my hypotheses would have to be the CHI-square test.

The second test I'ld like to validate is the "Perceived Stress Scale". I  believe that it can be correlated to the amount of drinking and smoking  people do. The people who are found to be stressed will also be found to be  drinking and smoking often. This makes sense since these substances provide  an escape for people.

The test i would use for this is a CHI-square. Since i would be comparing  two categorical variables.

The third test i would validate is the "Health Beliefs Model". This test  asseses perceived susceptibility to AIDS, and i would therefore corrrelate  it to the frequency of people with AIDS. If people are found to have  dangerous perceptions about AIDS, it would make sense that a good number of  these people actually have AIDS.

Since I am relating the spread of variables, The test, to binary variable,  AIDS diagnoses, i would use the equation /[npq]

From Homework write iv on validating some measures using data that exist in the study.

The measure I have chosen to validate is problematic social behavior, expressed in general aggression in the recent past, and in relation to parents, school and the law.  Behavior does not exist in a vacuum. One does not randomly decide to argue with his parents, drop out of school and commit crimes. 

1. Persons scoring higher on the ILFED Perceived Stress Inventory will exhibit more problematic risk related social behavior. A person that is prone to risk related behavior will exhibit risk behavior in all types of behavior.

2. Persons exhibiting risk related behaviors in at least two of the five areas measured OTHER than risk related social behavior (for example Substance Use, the group of sex behavior variables, including the amount of time that each person has been sexually active, drugs and alcohol with sex) will also exhibit a higher degree of social risk behavior.  

3. Persons who have recently experienced stressful life events, reflected in a high(?) score on the Coddington LES, coupled a poor social environment, as measured by social supports and noxious social contacts and the UCLA loneliness scale, will also exhibit risk related social behavior.